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Polymer crystallizationplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigPolymer crystallization

It's been known since the 1930s that polymers (plastics etc) are not entirely random amorphous molecular chains as was once thought. In ordinary plastics for example, between 10 and 80% of the structure is 'crystalline' - or, in other words, atomically arranged in large-scale regular repeating patterns.

Earthquake lightsplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigEarthquake lights

'Earthquake Lights' [ EQL ] are airborne luminosities associated with seismic activity - reports of them go back more than 2000 years.

"With the beginning of seismology as a science in the 19th century, many scholars devoted time to reporting luminosities associated with earthquake activity. To name a few, the Irish engineer Robert Mallet, the “founder of seismology”, published a five part catalog entitled “On the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena” (Mallet, 1851, 1852, 1853, 185…

Water - its originplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigWater - its origin

One obvious difference between Earth and other planets in the Solar System is that it's 70% covered in liquid water. There are at least five major (and very different) theories proposing the origins of such a large volume of water (estimated at around 1.3 billion cubic kilometres).

Cleomenes IIplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigCleomenes II

Cleomenes II (in Greek: Κλεομένης ) was the king of Sparta (current-day Southern Greece) possibly from around 370 to around 309 BC. Almost nothing is known about his reign, or activities in general. Since many other high-ranking people from the same area and time-period have been extensively documented, some historians have labelled him a 'prodigious non-entity'.

Roanoake colony enigmaplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigRoanoake colony enigma

In 1587, Walter Raleigh, acting on behalf of the British monarch Queen Elizabeth I, made attempts at re-establishing a permanent colony at Roanoake island (now in modern-day North Carolina and part of the Outer Banks Islands) There had been a previous attempt in 1585 which failed due to food shortages and lack of other supplies etc.

Auxin synthesisplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigAuxin synthesis

Auxin is an essential 'plant hormone' present in all parts of all plants. It's crucially involved in cell division, cell expansion, cell differentiation, lateral root formation, flowering, and tropic responses - i.e. movement towards light sources etc.

Radiotrophic Fungiplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigRadiotrophic Fungi

Radiotrophic fungi were first discovered in 2000 as black moulds growing inside and around the damaged Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. Subsequent research at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine showed that three melanin-containing fungi,

DNA damage detectionplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigDNA damage detection

It's estimated that the DNA of a mammalian cell is severely damaged several thousand times per day. In order to preserve the integrity of the genome, cells need to be able to accurately and rapidly detect when damage has occurred. How this is achieved is currently unknown.

Endogenous Retrovirusesplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigEndogenous Retroviruses

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are viral elements found in the genome of vertebrates that closely resemble (and can be derived from) retroviruses. In humans (where they are known as HERVs) this 'rogue' DNA is believed to make up between 5 - 8% of the human genome.

Brain sandplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigBrain sand

Brain Sand (a.k.a. corpora arenacea, acervuli, psammoma bodies and pineal concretions ) refers to small (2–3 μm) sand-like calcified grains which are found in the brains of mammals and some birds.

Because the grains are dense bio-mineralization formations, they show up very well on X-ray scans - especially as they tend to clump together, and can form nodules around 1mm across.

Brodmann area 10plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigBrodmann area 10

Brodmann area 10 (a.k.a. BA10, frontopolar prefrontal cortex, rostrolateral prefrontal cortex, or anterior prefrontal cortex) is a frontal lobe area in the human brain which has been found to be generally associated with working memory and multiple-task coordination. The area has also been implicated in 'decision making'.

Neuronal noiseplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigNeuronal noise

The laws of physics and mathematics dictate that all electronic systems are subject to background 'noise' in their transmission and reception. It's been found that biological systems which involve electrical and chemical signals between neurons are also inherently quite 'noisy'.

Sighingplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSighing

A sigh is defined as a kind of paralinguistic respiration in the form of a deep, audible, single exhalation of air out of the mouth or nose.

Sighing may have purely physiological triggers (see: Respiratory variability preceding and following sighs: A resetter hypothesis [ paywalled ] in: Biological Psychology, Volume 84, Issue 1, Pages 82-87), or may arise from negative emotion, i.e. from feelings such as dismay, dissatisfaction, boredom, or futility.

CISS theoryplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigCISS theory

The Chirality-Induced Spin Selectivity ( CISS ) effect was first discovered over two decades ago in the field of optical polarization. (ref.)

It was found that a fundamental quantum property of electrons - known as 'spin' - is strongly influenced by the 'chirality' i.e. 'handedness' of molecules.

Tail wagging in domestic dogsplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTail wagging in domestic dogs

"Tail wagging is a conspicuous behaviour in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Despite how much meaning humans attribute to this display, its quantitative description and evolutionary history are rarely studied.

Source :

Colonialityplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigColoniality

"The evolution of group living remains an outstanding question in evolutionary ecology. Among the most striking forms of group living are the enormous assemblages of breeders that occur in many colonial marine birds and mammals, with some colonies containing more than a million individuals breeding in close contact.

Cooperative breedingplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigCooperative breeding

In Cooperative breeding, individuals contribute towards the care and upbringing of offspring which are not their own. It's found in many species of birds, mammals, fish, and insects.*

The behaviour has puzzled evolutionary biologists for many decades, given that individuals apparently sacrifice some of their own breeding prospects in order to increase the potential of the species as a whole.

Neanderthal extinctionplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigNeanderthal extinction

In August 2014 an international research team reported (in Nature 512, pages 306–309 [ paywalled ] ) on a new analysis of 40 sites in Western Europe - concluding that Neanderthals died out about 40,000 years ago.

There are numerous theories which attempt an explanation of their extinction - including :

Tully Monsterplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTully Monster

"Tullimonstrum, colloquially known as the Tully Monster, is an extinct genus of soft-bodied bilaterian that lived in shallow tropical coastal waters of muddy estuaries during the Pennsylvanian geological period, about 300 million years ago."

Self-Organized Criticalityplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSelf-Organized Criticality

The term Self-Organized Criticality (SOC) was introduced in a 1987 paper for Physical Review Letters. The groundbreaking research by Per Bak, Chao Tang and Kurt Wiesenfeld (now known as 'BTW') described how complex systems can feature 'critical' points in their development which can lead to sudden, dramatic changes (phase transitions).

Allergiesplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigAllergies

The word 'allergy' was coined in 1906, and is used to describe people's immune system hypersensitivity to seemingly harmless substances in their environment.

Allergic reactions can be light - e.g. a mild skin rash - or life-threatening if it leads to

Crampplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigCramp

"A muscle cramp is a sudden, severe, and involuntary muscle contraction or over-shortening. It can cause mild-to-severe pain, and a paralysis-like immobility. Usually, it resolves on its own over several seconds, minutes, or in the worst scenario after several hours. In the healthy adult population, the incidence of muscle cramping is 50–60%.

Macular degenerationplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigMacular degeneration

Macular degeneration, also known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD or ARMD), is a medical condition which results in blurred (or absent) vision in the centre of the visual field. It can affect one or both eyes.

It's characterised by a general degeneration of the eye's central photo-receptors (retina) and surrounding tissues. Some types develop over a number of years, others in a matter of weeks.

Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigNon-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS)

Non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is currently defined as : "a clinical entity induced by the ingestion of gluten leading to intestinal and/or extraintestinal symptoms that improve once the gluten-containing foodstuff is removed from the diet, and celiac disease and wheat allergy have been excluded".

Retroperitoneal fibrosisplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigRetroperitoneal fibrosis

Retroperitoneal fibrosis (RPF) - also known as Ormond's disease - is a rare progressive disease which features fibrosis (fibrous thickening) of the tissues of the lower body cavity.

It was first noted in 1905, and was subsequently 're-discovered' by Dr. J.K. Ormond in 1948. For many years it was notoriously difficult to diagnose, but now shows up clearly on MRI scans. It can sometimes be alleviated with steroid-type drugs, or by surgery.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

SIDS is a syndrome whereby an seemingly healthy infant dies suddenly with for no medically apparent reason - typically during sleep.

90% of cases happen before six months of age, and it's the leading cause of post-neonatal infant mortality in many countries (e.g. the US and Europe).

Tobacco smoking and Parkinson's diseaseplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTobacco smoking and Parkinson's disease

Beginning in the early 2000s, the results of various studies which examined lifestyle choices as possible factors in the development of Parkinson's disease (PD) began suggesting a strong link with long-term smoking.

A 2016 'review study' which compiled and compared results from groups of earlier research papers, was published in

Sodium aurothiomalateplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSodium aurothiomalate

Sodium aurothiomalate (a.k.a. gold sodium thiomalate, and sold under the brand names Myocrisin, Myochrysine, Aurolate and others) is a gold compound used to reduce the symptoms of Rheumatoid Arthritis

In the mid 1800's gold salts of various types had been used to try to treat TB - with very little success. Despite their lack of effectiveness and dangerous side effects they were still in used as late as the 1920s,

Cold water swimmingplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigCold water swimming

Cold water swimming is currently considered as a treatment for Major Depressive Disorder. Several studies have examined the possible benefits, but results are not clear, partly because of the problems in excluding placebo effects, and social / lifestyle changes.

Agnoiologyplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigAgnoiology

Agnoiology is the study of ignorance. More specifically :

"The doctrine of things of which we are necessarily ignorant" ref.[ paywalled ]"

In other words. the opposite of epistemology which is the study of knowledge.

Given that human intelligence has limits, and that we have not explored the entire universe, it's a given that the extent of human ignorance is currently unknown.

The 'Brain in a vat' problemplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigThe 'Brain in a vat' problem

unfalsifiable

Philosophers have been puzzling over the 'Brain in a Vat' problem for several decades. The 'problem' comes down to arguments over whether it's possible (or not) to philosophically 'prove' that one (i.e. the observer) is not simply an isolated brain that is, in effect, imagining the entire world around it.

Mars - methaneplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigMars - methane

In 2004, three different research groups independently announced the discovery of significant concentrations of methane in the atmosphere of Mars. But the predicted lifetime of methane in the Martian atmosphere has been calculated at just 200 days (Source :

Deliriumplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigDelirium

"Over 2.6 million adults over the age of 65 develop delirium each year in the United States (US). Delirium is associated with a significant increase in mortality and the US health care costs associated with delirium are estimated at over $164 billion annually.

Major Depressive Disorderplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigMajor Depressive Disorder

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), also known simply as 'depression', is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood.

Current estimates are that severe depression affects around 2% of the global population at any given time, currently more than 150 million. The majority of cases don't appear to have an obvious personal and/or societal cause.

The 'drunken monkey' hypothesisplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigThe 'drunken monkey' hypothesis

Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) is one of the most common addictive substance abuses. It's estimated that in the US alone, there more than 3 million early deaths each year as a result.( ref.)

Leading to the question - why do humans have such a preference for alcohol?

'Filling in' (visual phenomenon)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_big'Filling in' (visual phenomenon)

It's been known for centuries that human eyes (and all other vertebrate eyes) have a so-called Blind Spot. The spot is located where the optic nerve connects to the retina* - there are no light-perception cells in this area. Around 5° (a bit less than 1%) of the visual field of each eye is profoundly blind.

Heat and Human Aggressionplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigHeat and Human Aggression

It's often suggested that increased ambient temperatures tend to increase aggressive behavior in humans. There is, however, no generally agreed explanation for the phenomenon.

See: ‘Ambient Temperature and Horn Honking : A Field Study of the Heat/Aggression Relationship’ [ paywalled ] in: Environment and Behavior

The 'Moon Illusion'plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigThe 'Moon Illusion'

"The Moon illusion is an optical illusion which causes the Moon to appear larger near the horizon than it does higher up in the sky. It has been known since ancient times and recorded by various cultures. The explanation of this illusion is still debated.

Religiosityplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigReligiosity

Religiosity is very loosely defined, but is generally taken to mean "the tendency towards religious beliefs".

"Over 80% of the global population consider themselves religious, with even more identifying as spiritual, __but the neural substrates of spirituality and religiosity remain unresolved."

The Return Trip Effect (RTE)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigThe Return Trip Effect (RTE)

Many will have experienced the Return Trip Effect (RTE), whereby the outgoing journey to a destination (any mode of transport) very often 'seems' considerably longer than the return over exactly the same route.

As well as being widely-experienced, the effect is readily reproduced in lab-based experiments - and has been quite extensively investigated.

Thought

Tip of the tongueplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTip of the tongue

"Tip of the tongue (or TOT) is the phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent. The phenomenon's name comes from the saying, "It's on the tip of my tongue." The tip of the tongue phenomenon reveals that lexical access occurs in stages.

Unconscious thought theoryplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigUnconscious thought theory

Unconscious Thought Theory (UTT) refers to the idea that that people may be able to 'work through' complex problems without necessarily paying conscious attention.

Many will have had the experience of waking in the morning with a solution to a problem that had previously proved difficult or impossible to resolve using conscious thought. A similar phenomenon is when someone has a 'Eureka' moment when

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