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• Limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigLimbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE)
  
  LATE describes a prevalent age-related medical condition which leads to impaired memory and thinking. It's extremely common in people over 85 - some recent studies putting the rate as high as 60% (
• Achenbach syndromeplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigAchenbach syndrome
  
  Achenbach syndrome (a.k.a. paroxysmal finger hematoma and ‘blue finger’ syndrome ) is a benign condition which features spontaneous episodic pain and swelling in the joints of one or more fingers, along with the subsequent appearance of a bruise on the palm side of the affected finger joints.
• Travelling Salesman Problemplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTravelling Salesman Problem
  
  As of Sept 2024, this page has been moved to the Computer Science category, here.
• Travelling Salesman Problemplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTravelling Salesman Problem
  
  The Travelling Salesman (TSP) is a problem of Theoretical Computer Science and Graph Optimization.
  
  "Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of cities, what is the shortest possible route that visits each city just once and returns to the origin city?"
• Is the Universe a Computer Simulation?plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigIs the Universe a Computer Simulation?
  
  unfalsifiable
  
  The Simulation Hypothesis was first published by Hans Moravec (of the Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, US) in 1998. See Simulation, Consciousness, Existence
  
  Then, in 2003, Professor Nick Bostrom, Director of the Future of Humanity Institute, Faculty of Philosophy & James Martin 21st Century School, Oxford University, published his paper
• The 'P versus NP' problemplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigThe 'P versus NP' problem
  
  The 'P versus NP' problem is a major unsolved enigma in mathematical computer science,
  
  It was first described in 1971 by mathematician Stephen Cook in his paper entitled 'The complexity of theorem-proving procedures' Proceedings of the Third Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing
• Neural Networksplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigNeural Networks
  
  functionality_unexplained
  
  ""Multilayer neural networks are among the most powerful models in machine learning, yet the fundamental reasons for this success defy mathematical understanding."
  
  Source : Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [open access]2018 115 (33)"
  
  'Artificial Intelligence' (AI) systems predominantly use
• Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigArtificial General Intelligence (AGI)
  
  undefined
  
  Research into computer-based Artificial Intelligence (AI) began over sixty years ago with the development of Expert Systems (ref.) but AI only began to (appear to) show some parallels with human intelligence with the deployment of workable
• Causalityplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigCausality
  
  On a simple level, the 'laws' of 'cause and effect' seem to be straightforward and self-evident - if you drop a 'priceless' ceramic vase onto a concrete floor, it will very probably break. (ref.) But examined in greater detail, and on larger timescales, causality reveals many levels of uncertainty and vagueness.
• Retroperitoneal fibrosisplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigRetroperitoneal fibrosis
  
  Retroperitoneal fibrosis (RPF) - also known as Ormond's disease - is a rare progressive disease which features fibrosis (fibrous thickening) of the tissues of the lower body cavity.
  
  It was first noted in 1905, and was subsequently 're-discovered' by Dr. J.K. Ormond in 1948. For many years it was notoriously difficult to diagnose, but now shows up clearly on MRI scans. It can sometimes be alleviated with steroid-type drugs, or by surgery.
• Salt and hypertensionplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSalt and hypertension
  
  It's been known for several thousand years that an excess intake of common salt can have adverse effects on the cardiovascular system. (ref.)
  
  Recent research has shown unequivocally that long-term high intakes of salt can cause a range of problems in otherwise healthy individuals. Dietary specialists worldwide have now come to an agreement that salt intake for adults should be no more than 5g. per day.
• 'Kick The Bucket' etymologyplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_big'Kick The Bucket' etymology
  
  Details of the origins of the English idiom 'Kick The Bucket' (meaning to die) have been lost.
  
  It was in use at least as far back as the 1700s, but etymologists differ in their opinions about its roots. One theory is that it might be related to the French word

• Limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE)plugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigLimbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE)
  
  LATE describes a prevalent age-related medical condition which leads to impaired memory and thinking. It's extremely common in people over 85 - some recent studies putting the rate as high as 60% (
• Venus Flytrap mechanismplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigVenus Flytrap mechanism
  
  The Venus Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) is a well-known carnivorous plant native to the sub-tropical wetlands of the US.
  
  The 'trap' structure snaps shut when insects or spiders repeatedly touch specialised 'trigger hairs' on the trap's upper surface.
• General Anaestheticsplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigGeneral Anaesthetics
  
  A general anaesthetic is a drug that brings about a reversible loss of consciousness.* [ see note below ]
  
  In formal use since 1842 - the first public demonstration used Diethyl ether to carry out surgery. (Though it's likely that alcohol, another chemical classed as an anaesthetic, was previously used, extensively, for similar purposes).
• Perfect Cuboidsplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigPerfect Cuboids
  
  A 'Perfect Cuboid' (also called a Perfect Euler Brick) is a (proposed) cuboid whose space diagonal also has integer length. That's to say a2 + b2 + c2 = g2 (where a, b, c are the sides and g is the diagonal).
  
  The problem of their existence (or not) goes back at least as far as mathematiciian Paul Halcke, 300 years or so ago.
• Triboluminescent tapeplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTriboluminescent tape
  
  When rolls of transparent adhesive tape are peeled, the relative motion between the two separating surfaces can produce electromagnetic radiation - an example of triboluminescence.
  
  In a darkened room, it can be seen as visible light, but the peeling action can also emit high energy photons in the x-ray band -
• Sexual reproductionplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSexual reproduction
  
  "The maintenance of sexual reproduction in a highly competitive world has long been one of the major mysteries of biology given that asexual reproduction can reproduce much more quickly as 50% of offspring in sexual reproduction are males, unable to produce offspring themselves."
• Forgettingplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigForgetting
  
  "Although it is commonly accepted that learning and memory occur via enduring changes in neuronal properties such as synaptic strength within a network of neurons, many details of these processes remain unknown, including the mechanisms responsible for the persistence and maintenance of memory over long periods of time."
• Dark Matterplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigDark Matter
  
  "The nature of the dominant component of galaxies and clusters remains unknown."
  
  Source : Measuring the dark matter equation of state (Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 415, L74–L77)"
  
  In the 1930s, astronomical observations of galaxy rotations showed that the outer regions were rotating (about the galaxy's 'centre') at the same speed, or faster, than the central regions. Subsequent calculations referring to the galaxy's mass, and thus its internal gravitational attractions, showed that i…
• Achenbach syndromeplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigAchenbach syndrome
  
  Achenbach syndrome (a.k.a. paroxysmal finger hematoma and ‘blue finger’ syndrome ) is a benign condition which features spontaneous episodic pain and swelling in the joints of one or more fingers, along with the subsequent appearance of a bruise on the palm side of the affected finger joints.
• Spasmodic dysphoniaplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigSpasmodic dysphonia
  
  "Spasmodic dysphonia, also known as laryngeal dystonia, is a disorder in which the muscles that generate a person's voice go into periods of spasm This results in breaks or interruptions in the voice, often every few sentences, which can make a person difficult to understand. The person's voice may also sound strained or they may be nearly unable to speak. Onset is often gradual and the condition is lifelong.
• Travelling Salesman Problemplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigTravelling Salesman Problem
  
  The Travelling Salesman (TSP) is a problem of Theoretical Computer Science and Graph Optimization.
  
  "Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of cities, what is the shortest possible route that visits each city just once and returns to the origin city?"
• Kimura diseaseplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigKimura disease
  
  "Kimura disease is a benign rare chronic inflammatory disorder of unknown etiology that involves the lymph nodes and subcutaneous tissue of the head and neck regions. Elevated serum immunoglobulin E levels and peripheral blood eosinophilia are also common. This disease is most common in middle-aged Asian men. Although the etiology is unknown, it most probably represents an aberrant chronic immune response."
• 'Borg' DNAplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_big'Borg' DNA
  
  'Borgs' are newly discovered (2021) large functional DNA sequences found in the cell nucleus, but outside the chromosomes.
  
  They have been found, in abundance, in some species of the micro-organisms Archaea - in particular, ones which can oxidise and remove methane from the environment. On a global scale, the activities of these organisms are crucial for controlling methane levels (methane being a naturally occurring and powerful 'Greenhouse Gas').
• Influenza seasonalityplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigInfluenza seasonality
  
  The incidence of Influenza ('flu) is tightly linked to the seasons. In temperate climates the disease exists at low levels during the warmer Summer months, and then dramatically peaks during the Winter.
  
  The reasons for this 'seasonality' have been examined and discussed at length for more than a century.
• Defining Lifeplugin-autotooltip__plain plugin-autotooltip_bigDefining Life
  
  undefined
  
  There isn’t, as yet, any definition of a 'lifeform' which can withstand logical scrutiny.
  
  Exceptions can easily be found for any definition so far presented. For example (from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language